Pot-Pollen in Stingless Bee Melittology
portes grátis
Pot-Pollen in Stingless Bee Melittology
; ;
Springer Nature Switzerland AG
01/2019
481
Mole
Inglês
9783030096670
15 a 20 dias
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Forewords Introduction Acknowledgements SECTION 1 Pollen and the Evolution of Mutualism 1. Pot-Pollen as a Discipline. What Does it Include? 1.1. Pot-Pollen and Palynology from an Ecological Point of View 1.2. A Modern Synthesis of Bee-Pollen and Pot-Pollen Study 1.3. Plant Reproduction 1.4. Pollination 1.5. Pollen Biology and Palynology 1.6. Applied Pollen Taxonomy 2. Are Stingless Bees a Broadly Polylectic Group? An Empirical Study of the Adjustments Required for an Improved Assessment of Pollen Diet in Bees 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Pollen Specialization Categories in Bees 2.3. Pollen Analysis of Samples 2.4. Adjustment Calculations to Assess Pollen Specialization Categories in Stingless Bees 2.4.1. Modifying the Number of Foraged Resource Items: Threshold Values and Pollen Type Versus Pollen Species 2.4.2. Modifying the Number of Available Resources: Spatial and Temporal Adjustments 2.5. The Importance of an Appropriate Assessment of Pollen Specialization in Bees: Factors Causing Low Number of Foraged Items 2.5.1 Abundant Versus Minor Pollen Types 2.5.2 Recruitment Behaviour 2.5.3 Intra-nest Pollen Analysis 2.6. Factors Causing High Number of Available Items< 2.7. Polylecty, Broad Polylecty or Simply degrees of polylecty?< 3. Pollen collected by stingless bees: a contribution to understand Amazonian biodiversity 3.1. Introduction 3.1.1 Origin and Evolution of Plant-Bee Interactions 3.2. The Use of Pollen Analysis in the Study of Bees in the Amazon Rainforest 3.3. Diversity of Plants, Stingless Bees and their Interactions in Central Amazon 3.4. Amazonian Bee Diet, Biology and Suggested Interactions Potentially Leading to Pollination 3.5. How to Improve Meliponiculture for Sustainable Development in the Amazon 3.6. Conclusions 4. The Stingless Honey Bees (Apidae, Apinae: Meliponini) in Panama, and Ecology from Pollen Analysis 4.1. An Introduction to the Stingless Honey Bees and Pot-Pollen, in Panama 4.2. Pollen niche, relative specialization, and pollen spectrum 4.2.1 Qualitative and quantitative analyses 4.2.2 Field bee short-term resource selection 4.2.3 Pollen of popular meliponines , Africanized honeybees and lesser known species 4.2.4 Pollination ecology and population biology 4.2.5 Conclusions and ecological perspective 5. The value of plants for the Mayan stingless honey bee Melipona beecheii (Apidae: Meliponini): a pollen-based study in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico 5.1. Understanding the Ecology of a Mayan Resource and Cultural Icon 5.2. Baseline Studies of Invasive Honeybees and Native Neotropical Bees 5.3. Fieldwork 5.4. Pollen Analysis from Pot-Pollen Samples 5.5. Understanding Bee Resource Use in Dynamic Natural Environments 6. Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees from East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia 6.1. Introduction ^len Collection by Heterotrigona itama in Tropical Island of Taman Tropika Kenyir, Terengganu 6.3. Pollen Collection and Abundance among Colonies of Lepidotrigona terminata from a Meliponary in Besut, Terengganu 6.4. Selected Flowers Producing Pollen Preferred by Stingless Bees in Terengganu 6.5. Conclusions 7. The Contribution of Palynological Surveys to Stingless Bee Conservation: a Case Study with Melipona subnitida 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Floral Resources-Dynamics: Pot-Pollen versus Pollen from the Bees' Body 7.3. Melittopalynology as Tool for Restoration Strategies: Suitable Foraging Habitats 7.4. Concluding Remarks and Future Steps 8. Pollen Storage by Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides in a Protected Urban Atlantic Forest Area of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 8.1. Introduction 8.2. Getting Pollen Loads and Pollen Grains by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides 8.3. Palynological Characteristics of Pollen Batches Collected from the Baskets of M. quadrifasciata anthidioides 8.3.1 Monofloral Pollen Loads 8.3.2 Bifloral Pollen Loads 8.3.3 Heterofloral Pollen Loads 8.3.4 Additional Pollen Types 8.3.5 Additional Structured Elements 8.4. Plant Families, Genera and Species Mostly Visited by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides 8.5. Conclusion 9. Angiosperm Resources for Stingless Bees (Apidae, Meliponini): A Pot-Pollen Melittopalynological Study in the Gulf of Mexico 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Background of Melittopalynological Studies in Mexico 9.3. Methods and Study Areas 9.4. Floral Resources Foraged by Melipona beecheii in the State of Campeche 9.4.1 Angiosperm Resources for Melipona beecheii 9.4.2 Physicochemical Analyses of Melipona beecheii Pot-Honey 9.5. Meliponiculture and Melitopalynological Study of Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Veracruz 9.5.1 INANA's Sustainable Meliponiculture 9.5.2 Angiosperm Resources for Scaptotrigona mexicana, Plebeia sp. and Melipona beecheii in Veracruz 9.6. Analysis of the Plant Preferences of Stingless Bees in Campeche and Veracruz, Gulf of Mexico 9.7. Angiosperms Recorded in Systematic Mexican Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees 9.8. General Considerations 10. Annual Foraging Patterns of the Maya Bee Melipona beecheii (Bennett, 1831) in Quintana Roo, Mexico 10.1. Introduction 10.2. A case study 10.2.1 Field observations: registering bees activity 10.2.2. Foraging Activity to Collect Pollen and Nectar 10.2.3. Stored Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen Reserves 10.2.4. Offspring 10.3. Correlations Between the Studied Factors< 11. Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Characteristics of Stingless Bees as Pollinators 11.3. Field Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees 11.4. Greenhouse Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees 11.5. Stingless Bee Management under Greenhouse Conditions 11.6. Perspectives 12. Stingless Bees as Potential Pollinators in Agroecosystems in Argentina: Inferences from Pot-Pollen Studies in Natural Environments 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Potential Pollination by Stingless Bees: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors 12.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Reduced-Moderate Flight Range in Stingless Bees 12.2.2. Pollination Using Ground Nesting Stingless Bees 12.3. Pollen Spectra of Pot-Pollen in Colonies of Stingless Bees from Natural Environments 12.4. Crops Potentially Pollinated by Stingless Bees in Argentina 12.5. Spatial Variation of Crops in Argentina 12.6. Temporal Variation of Flower Availability in Agroecosystems 12.7. Crop and Non-Crop Flowerings Present in Agroecosystems Beneficial for the Maintenance of Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies 12.7.1. Pollinating the Target Crop 12.7.2. Weeds and Edge Vegetation as Complementary Flowerings for Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies 12.7.3. Diversified Agroecosystems as Best Habitat for Stingless Bee Pollination and Colony Management 12.8. Case Study: Pollination of Strawberries with Plebeia catamarcensis (Holmberg) in Santa Fe, Central Argentina 12.8.1. Strawberry Cultivation in Argentina 12.8.2 The Strawberry in Santa Fe 12.8.3 Meliponini: Potential Pollinators in Santa Fe Strawberry Crops SECTION 2 Biodiversity, Behavior and Microorganisms of the Stingless Bees (Meliponini) 13. Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Meliponini) from Gabon 13.1. Introduction 13.2. Taxonomy and Morphological Diversity of Stingless Bees in Gabon 13.3. Distribution of Stingless Bee Fauna in Gabon 13.4. Biology, Ecology and Nesting Behavior of the Stingless Bees 13.5. Knowledge and Traditional Use of Stingless Bees in Gabon 13.6. Conclusion 14. Pushing 100 Species: Meliponines (Apidae: Meliponini) in a Parcel of Western Amazonian Forest at Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador 14.1. Yasuni Forest and Melittological Background 14.2. Discovering Meliponine Biodiversity 14.3. Species Accounts and Frequency 14.4. Insights from Comparative Morphology and other Rich Amazonian Areas 14.5. Bioprospecting for Pollination Knowledge and Sustainable Exploitation 15. Diversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador, Pot-Pollen Standards and Meliponiculture Fostering a Living Museum for Meliponini of the World 15.1. Introduction 15.2. Megabiodiversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador 15.3. A Revised Ecuadorian Honey Norm and Approach to Pot-Pollen Standards 15.4. Stingless Bee Keepers are Crucial for the Heritage and Conservation Mission 15.5. A Stingless Bee Window to Look at Climate Warming 15.5. Why a Living Museum to Embrace Meliponini of the World? 16. Nesting Ecology of Stingless Bees in Africa 16.1. Introduction 16.2. Meliponine Origin, Dispersal and Richness 16.3. Stingless Bee Species in Africa 16.4. Stingless Bee Nest Architecture 16.5. African Stingless Bee Nesting Behavior 17. On the Trophic Niche of Bees in Cerrado Areas of Brazil and Yeasts in their Stored Pollen 17.1. Introduction 17.2. Pollen Harvested by Native Bees of the Cerrado 17.3. Yeasts in Stored Pollen: Diversity and Ecological Role 18. A Review of the Artificial Diets Used as Pot-Pollen Substitutes 18.1. Introduction 18.1.1 Aim of the Chapter 18.1.2 How do Stingless Bees Harvest and Store their Food? 18.2. The Fermentation Process in Stingless Bees Storage Pots 18.2.1 General Characteristics of Pollen Fermentation 18.2.2 Microbial fermentation and nutritional enhancement of pollen 18.2.3 Impacts of Exogenous Compounds in Pollen 18.3. Microorganisms Present in Pot-Pollen 18.3.1 Generalities of host-associated microorganisms 18.3.2 Bacteria 18.3.3 Yeasts 18.3.4 Filamentous Fungi 18.4. Development of Artificial Diets 19. Yeast and Bacterial Composition in Pot-Pollen Recovered from Meliponini in Colombia: Prospects for a Promising Biological Resource 19.1. Introduction 19.2. General Properties of Corbicular Bee-Derived Pollen 19.3. The Key Bacterial Assemblages Known to be Associated with Bees and Pollen 19.4. Key Features of Yeast Communities Present in Pollen Collected by Bees: Recovery and Identification of Yeasts found in Pollen Collected by Four Genera of Stingless Bees from Colombia 19.5 Final remarks SECTION 3 Stingless Bees in Culture and Traditions 20. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees by Rural Residents of Northern Misiones, Argentina 20.1. Introduction 20.2. Southernmost Atlantic Forest Ecoregion 20.3. Ethnobiological Field Work 20.4. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Context 20.4.1 Cultural Factors 20.4.2 Psychological Factors 20.4.3 Organoleptic Factors 20.5. Context of Exploitation of Stingless Bees 20.6. Cultural and Psychological Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees 20.7. Relationships Between Pot-Honey, Pot-Pollen, and Cultural, Psychological Factors 20.8. Conclusions and Future Challenges 21. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot Native Stingless Bees in Precolumbian Maya Art 21.1. Introduction 21.2. Maya Bee Myths 21.3. Small Format Modelled Sculptures 21.3.1 Small Clay Bee 21.3.2 Ceramic Beehive 21.3.3 Censers ^; Bees and Stingless Bee Keeping in a Sacred Maya Book 21.4.1 Melipona beecheii in the Tro-Cortesianus Codex 21.4.2 Hobon 21.5. A World View of Humankind through a Bee Model as Told by a H-men, a Traditional Maya Priest 21.6. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot 21.6.1 Once upon a Time, Long, Long Ago, there were Bees.... 21.7. 'The Flower Dust' SECTION 4 Chemical Composition, Bioactivity and Biodiversity of Pot-Pollen 22. Nutritional Composition of Pot-Pollen from Four Species of Stingless Bees (Meliponini) in South East Asia 22.1. Introduction 22.2. Shape and Volume of Stingless Bee Pollen Pots 22.3. Nutritional Composition <22.3.1 Macronutrients of Pot-Pollen 22.3.2 Mineral Analysis 22.3.3 Fatty Acid Analysis 22.3.4 Amino Acid Analysis 22.4. Botanical Origin 22.5. Conclusions, Suggestion and Future Research 23. Characterization of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico 23.1. Introduction 23.2. Traditional Values of Scaptotrigona mexicana 23.3. Importance of Pot-Pollen in Meliponiculture < 23.4. Palynological Analyses of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico 23.5. Chemical Parameters of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico 23.6. Elemental Composition of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico 23.7. Conclusions and Perspectives on Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen in Mexico 24. Chemical Characterization and Bioactivity of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida, Venezuela 24.1. Introduction 24.2. Proximal Analysis of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida 24.3. Methods to Quantify Flavonoids, Polyphenols, Proteins, and Antioxidant Activity in Ethanolic Extracts of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen 24.3.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts 24.3.2 Flavonoid Content 24.3.3 Polyphenol Content 24.3.4 Protein Content 24.3.5 Antioxidant Activity by the ABTS+* Method 24.3.6 Antioxidant Activity (AOA) by Fenton-Type Reaction 24.3.7 Hydroxyl Radical Assay 24.4. Biochemical Components and Antioxidant Activity of Ethanolic Extracts from Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen 4.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts 24.5. Conclusions 25. Chemical, Microbiological and Palynological composition of the 'Sambura' Melipona scutellaris Pot-Pollen 25.1. Introduction 25.2. The 'Sambura' of the True "Urucu" Bee 25.3. Physicochemical Characteristics of 'Sambura' 25.3.1 Moisture 25.3.2 Ash 25.3.3 Lipids 25.3.4 Protein< 25.3.5 Fiber 25.3.6 Carbohydrates 25.3.7 pH 25.3.8 Free Acidity 25.3.9 Water activity (Aw) 25.3.10 Total Energy Value 25.4. Microbiological Characteristics of 'Sambura' 25.5. Pollen Analysis 26. Characterization of Pot-Pollen from Southern Venezuela 26.1. Introduction 26.2. Venezuelan Stingless Bees 26.3. Botanical Origin of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen 26.4. Proximal Analysis of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen 26.5 Bioactive Components and Antioxidant Activity of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts 26.5.1 Preparation of the Ethanolic Extracts 26.5.2 Bioactive components 26.5.3 Flavonoids by HPLC-UV 26.5.4 Antioxidant Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Homogenates 26.6. Conclusions 27. Bioactivity and Botanical Origin of Austroplebeia and Tetragonula Australian Pot-Pollen 27.1. Introduction 27.2. Nutraceutical Properties of Bee Pollen 27.3. Botanical Origin of Australian Pot-Pollen 27.4. Flavonoids, Polyphenols and Antioxidant Activity 27.5. Antibacterial Activity of Australian Pot-Pollen 27.6. Conclusions 28. Antibacterial Activity of Ethanolic Extracts of Pot-Pollen from Eight Meliponine Species from Venezuela 28.1. Introduction 28.1.1 Biological Potential of Pollen Stored in Bee Nests 28.1.2 Aim of the Chapter 28.2. Pot-Pollen Samples and Ethanolic Extraction 28.3. Well Diffusion Agar and Minimal Inhibitory Concentration Methods 28.4. Antibacterial Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts 28.4.1 Inhibition Zone Diameters 28.4.2 Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations 28.4.3 Antibacterial Activity of Pollen and Polyphenols 28.4. Conclusions 29. Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen from Three Species of Australian Stingless Bees (Meliponini) 29.1. Introduction 29.1.1 Historical Accounts of Australian Pot-Pollen 29.1.2 Health Benefits of Bee Pollen 29.1.3 Botanical Sources within Flight Range< 29.1.4 Food Security 29.1.5 Research in Australian Meliponini Bee Products 29.1.6 Aim of the Chapter 29.2. Methods of Chromatographic Analysis of Pot-Pollen 29.2.1 Sampling Pot-Pollen from Bee Hives of Australian Meliponini 29.2.2 Extraction 29.2.3 Volatiles by HS-SPME-GC-MS 29.2.4 Chemical constituents by UPLC-DAD-ESI(-)-MS/MS 29.2.5 Targeted Analyses of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PA) by ESI(+)-MS/MS 29.2.6 Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen VOCs and Phenolics 29.3. Chemometrics of Australian Meliponini Pot-Pollen 29.3.1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 29.3.2 Secondary Metabolites by LC-UV-HRMS/MS 29.3.3 Chemometrics Using Open Source Data 29.4. Future studies of Australian Pot-Pollen 29.4.1 Botanical and ecological studies 29.4.2 Microbiological and Metabolomics of Australian Pot-Pollen 29.4.3 Recent Trends in Australian Meliponiculture 29.5. Conclusions SECTION 6 Marketing and Standards of Pot-Pollen 30. Rural-Urban Meliponiculture and Ecosystems in Neotropical areas. Scaptotrigona, a Resilient Stingless Bee? 30.1. Introduction 30.2. Initiatives to Revitalize Stingless Bee Keeping 30.3. Traditional Knowledge Involving Scaptotrigona 30.4. One stingless bee, Scaptotrigona over Melipona 30.5. Naming Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Labels of Commercial Products 30.6. Future of Social Interventions in Meliponiculture 31. Pot-Pollen "Sambura" Marketing in Brazil, and Suggested Legisation 31.1. Introduction 31.2. Pot-Pollen is Known as 'Sambura' in Brazil 31.3. Meliponine Species Used for the Production of 'Sambura' 31.4. Harvesting and Processing 31.5. Marketing of Meliponine 'Sambura' 31.6. Cultural Aspects of Pot-Pollen Consumption in Brazil 31.7. Strategies to Increase the Production of Sambura' 31.8. Seasonality of Pot-Pollen 31.9. Pot-Pollen Production Initiatives in Brazilian States 31.10. Suggested 'Sambura' Standards for Pot-Pollen Legislation Appendix A Ethnic Names of Stingless Bees Appendix B Microorganisms Associated with Stingless Bees or Used to Test Antimicrobial Activity (AM) ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL Appendix C Taxonomic Index of Bees Appendix D List of Bee Taxa Appendix E Taxonomic Index of Plant Families Appendix F List of Plant Taxa Used by Bees INDEX
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Forewords Introduction Acknowledgements SECTION 1 Pollen and the Evolution of Mutualism 1. Pot-Pollen as a Discipline. What Does it Include? 1.1. Pot-Pollen and Palynology from an Ecological Point of View 1.2. A Modern Synthesis of Bee-Pollen and Pot-Pollen Study 1.3. Plant Reproduction 1.4. Pollination 1.5. Pollen Biology and Palynology 1.6. Applied Pollen Taxonomy 2. Are Stingless Bees a Broadly Polylectic Group? An Empirical Study of the Adjustments Required for an Improved Assessment of Pollen Diet in Bees 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Pollen Specialization Categories in Bees 2.3. Pollen Analysis of Samples 2.4. Adjustment Calculations to Assess Pollen Specialization Categories in Stingless Bees 2.4.1. Modifying the Number of Foraged Resource Items: Threshold Values and Pollen Type Versus Pollen Species 2.4.2. Modifying the Number of Available Resources: Spatial and Temporal Adjustments 2.5. The Importance of an Appropriate Assessment of Pollen Specialization in Bees: Factors Causing Low Number of Foraged Items 2.5.1 Abundant Versus Minor Pollen Types 2.5.2 Recruitment Behaviour 2.5.3 Intra-nest Pollen Analysis 2.6. Factors Causing High Number of Available Items< 2.7. Polylecty, Broad Polylecty or Simply degrees of polylecty?< 3. Pollen collected by stingless bees: a contribution to understand Amazonian biodiversity 3.1. Introduction 3.1.1 Origin and Evolution of Plant-Bee Interactions 3.2. The Use of Pollen Analysis in the Study of Bees in the Amazon Rainforest 3.3. Diversity of Plants, Stingless Bees and their Interactions in Central Amazon 3.4. Amazonian Bee Diet, Biology and Suggested Interactions Potentially Leading to Pollination 3.5. How to Improve Meliponiculture for Sustainable Development in the Amazon 3.6. Conclusions 4. The Stingless Honey Bees (Apidae, Apinae: Meliponini) in Panama, and Ecology from Pollen Analysis 4.1. An Introduction to the Stingless Honey Bees and Pot-Pollen, in Panama 4.2. Pollen niche, relative specialization, and pollen spectrum 4.2.1 Qualitative and quantitative analyses 4.2.2 Field bee short-term resource selection 4.2.3 Pollen of popular meliponines , Africanized honeybees and lesser known species 4.2.4 Pollination ecology and population biology 4.2.5 Conclusions and ecological perspective 5. The value of plants for the Mayan stingless honey bee Melipona beecheii (Apidae: Meliponini): a pollen-based study in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico 5.1. Understanding the Ecology of a Mayan Resource and Cultural Icon 5.2. Baseline Studies of Invasive Honeybees and Native Neotropical Bees 5.3. Fieldwork 5.4. Pollen Analysis from Pot-Pollen Samples 5.5. Understanding Bee Resource Use in Dynamic Natural Environments 6. Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees from East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia 6.1. Introduction ^len Collection by Heterotrigona itama in Tropical Island of Taman Tropika Kenyir, Terengganu 6.3. Pollen Collection and Abundance among Colonies of Lepidotrigona terminata from a Meliponary in Besut, Terengganu 6.4. Selected Flowers Producing Pollen Preferred by Stingless Bees in Terengganu 6.5. Conclusions 7. The Contribution of Palynological Surveys to Stingless Bee Conservation: a Case Study with Melipona subnitida 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Floral Resources-Dynamics: Pot-Pollen versus Pollen from the Bees' Body 7.3. Melittopalynology as Tool for Restoration Strategies: Suitable Foraging Habitats 7.4. Concluding Remarks and Future Steps 8. Pollen Storage by Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides in a Protected Urban Atlantic Forest Area of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 8.1. Introduction 8.2. Getting Pollen Loads and Pollen Grains by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides 8.3. Palynological Characteristics of Pollen Batches Collected from the Baskets of M. quadrifasciata anthidioides 8.3.1 Monofloral Pollen Loads 8.3.2 Bifloral Pollen Loads 8.3.3 Heterofloral Pollen Loads 8.3.4 Additional Pollen Types 8.3.5 Additional Structured Elements 8.4. Plant Families, Genera and Species Mostly Visited by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides 8.5. Conclusion 9. Angiosperm Resources for Stingless Bees (Apidae, Meliponini): A Pot-Pollen Melittopalynological Study in the Gulf of Mexico 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Background of Melittopalynological Studies in Mexico 9.3. Methods and Study Areas 9.4. Floral Resources Foraged by Melipona beecheii in the State of Campeche 9.4.1 Angiosperm Resources for Melipona beecheii 9.4.2 Physicochemical Analyses of Melipona beecheii Pot-Honey 9.5. Meliponiculture and Melitopalynological Study of Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Veracruz 9.5.1 INANA's Sustainable Meliponiculture 9.5.2 Angiosperm Resources for Scaptotrigona mexicana, Plebeia sp. and Melipona beecheii in Veracruz 9.6. Analysis of the Plant Preferences of Stingless Bees in Campeche and Veracruz, Gulf of Mexico 9.7. Angiosperms Recorded in Systematic Mexican Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees 9.8. General Considerations 10. Annual Foraging Patterns of the Maya Bee Melipona beecheii (Bennett, 1831) in Quintana Roo, Mexico 10.1. Introduction 10.2. A case study 10.2.1 Field observations: registering bees activity 10.2.2. Foraging Activity to Collect Pollen and Nectar 10.2.3. Stored Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen Reserves 10.2.4. Offspring 10.3. Correlations Between the Studied Factors< 11. Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Characteristics of Stingless Bees as Pollinators 11.3. Field Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees 11.4. Greenhouse Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees 11.5. Stingless Bee Management under Greenhouse Conditions 11.6. Perspectives 12. Stingless Bees as Potential Pollinators in Agroecosystems in Argentina: Inferences from Pot-Pollen Studies in Natural Environments 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Potential Pollination by Stingless Bees: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors 12.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Reduced-Moderate Flight Range in Stingless Bees 12.2.2. Pollination Using Ground Nesting Stingless Bees 12.3. Pollen Spectra of Pot-Pollen in Colonies of Stingless Bees from Natural Environments 12.4. Crops Potentially Pollinated by Stingless Bees in Argentina 12.5. Spatial Variation of Crops in Argentina 12.6. Temporal Variation of Flower Availability in Agroecosystems 12.7. Crop and Non-Crop Flowerings Present in Agroecosystems Beneficial for the Maintenance of Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies 12.7.1. Pollinating the Target Crop 12.7.2. Weeds and Edge Vegetation as Complementary Flowerings for Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies 12.7.3. Diversified Agroecosystems as Best Habitat for Stingless Bee Pollination and Colony Management 12.8. Case Study: Pollination of Strawberries with Plebeia catamarcensis (Holmberg) in Santa Fe, Central Argentina 12.8.1. Strawberry Cultivation in Argentina 12.8.2 The Strawberry in Santa Fe 12.8.3 Meliponini: Potential Pollinators in Santa Fe Strawberry Crops SECTION 2 Biodiversity, Behavior and Microorganisms of the Stingless Bees (Meliponini) 13. Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Meliponini) from Gabon 13.1. Introduction 13.2. Taxonomy and Morphological Diversity of Stingless Bees in Gabon 13.3. Distribution of Stingless Bee Fauna in Gabon 13.4. Biology, Ecology and Nesting Behavior of the Stingless Bees 13.5. Knowledge and Traditional Use of Stingless Bees in Gabon 13.6. Conclusion 14. Pushing 100 Species: Meliponines (Apidae: Meliponini) in a Parcel of Western Amazonian Forest at Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador 14.1. Yasuni Forest and Melittological Background 14.2. Discovering Meliponine Biodiversity 14.3. Species Accounts and Frequency 14.4. Insights from Comparative Morphology and other Rich Amazonian Areas 14.5. Bioprospecting for Pollination Knowledge and Sustainable Exploitation 15. Diversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador, Pot-Pollen Standards and Meliponiculture Fostering a Living Museum for Meliponini of the World 15.1. Introduction 15.2. Megabiodiversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador 15.3. A Revised Ecuadorian Honey Norm and Approach to Pot-Pollen Standards 15.4. Stingless Bee Keepers are Crucial for the Heritage and Conservation Mission 15.5. A Stingless Bee Window to Look at Climate Warming 15.5. Why a Living Museum to Embrace Meliponini of the World? 16. Nesting Ecology of Stingless Bees in Africa 16.1. Introduction 16.2. Meliponine Origin, Dispersal and Richness 16.3. Stingless Bee Species in Africa 16.4. Stingless Bee Nest Architecture 16.5. African Stingless Bee Nesting Behavior 17. On the Trophic Niche of Bees in Cerrado Areas of Brazil and Yeasts in their Stored Pollen 17.1. Introduction 17.2. Pollen Harvested by Native Bees of the Cerrado 17.3. Yeasts in Stored Pollen: Diversity and Ecological Role 18. A Review of the Artificial Diets Used as Pot-Pollen Substitutes 18.1. Introduction 18.1.1 Aim of the Chapter 18.1.2 How do Stingless Bees Harvest and Store their Food? 18.2. The Fermentation Process in Stingless Bees Storage Pots 18.2.1 General Characteristics of Pollen Fermentation 18.2.2 Microbial fermentation and nutritional enhancement of pollen 18.2.3 Impacts of Exogenous Compounds in Pollen 18.3. Microorganisms Present in Pot-Pollen 18.3.1 Generalities of host-associated microorganisms 18.3.2 Bacteria 18.3.3 Yeasts 18.3.4 Filamentous Fungi 18.4. Development of Artificial Diets 19. Yeast and Bacterial Composition in Pot-Pollen Recovered from Meliponini in Colombia: Prospects for a Promising Biological Resource 19.1. Introduction 19.2. General Properties of Corbicular Bee-Derived Pollen 19.3. The Key Bacterial Assemblages Known to be Associated with Bees and Pollen 19.4. Key Features of Yeast Communities Present in Pollen Collected by Bees: Recovery and Identification of Yeasts found in Pollen Collected by Four Genera of Stingless Bees from Colombia 19.5 Final remarks SECTION 3 Stingless Bees in Culture and Traditions 20. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees by Rural Residents of Northern Misiones, Argentina 20.1. Introduction 20.2. Southernmost Atlantic Forest Ecoregion 20.3. Ethnobiological Field Work 20.4. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Context 20.4.1 Cultural Factors 20.4.2 Psychological Factors 20.4.3 Organoleptic Factors 20.5. Context of Exploitation of Stingless Bees 20.6. Cultural and Psychological Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees 20.7. Relationships Between Pot-Honey, Pot-Pollen, and Cultural, Psychological Factors 20.8. Conclusions and Future Challenges 21. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot Native Stingless Bees in Precolumbian Maya Art 21.1. Introduction 21.2. Maya Bee Myths 21.3. Small Format Modelled Sculptures 21.3.1 Small Clay Bee 21.3.2 Ceramic Beehive 21.3.3 Censers ^; Bees and Stingless Bee Keeping in a Sacred Maya Book 21.4.1 Melipona beecheii in the Tro-Cortesianus Codex 21.4.2 Hobon 21.5. A World View of Humankind through a Bee Model as Told by a H-men, a Traditional Maya Priest 21.6. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot 21.6.1 Once upon a Time, Long, Long Ago, there were Bees.... 21.7. 'The Flower Dust' SECTION 4 Chemical Composition, Bioactivity and Biodiversity of Pot-Pollen 22. Nutritional Composition of Pot-Pollen from Four Species of Stingless Bees (Meliponini) in South East Asia 22.1. Introduction 22.2. Shape and Volume of Stingless Bee Pollen Pots 22.3. Nutritional Composition <22.3.1 Macronutrients of Pot-Pollen 22.3.2 Mineral Analysis 22.3.3 Fatty Acid Analysis 22.3.4 Amino Acid Analysis 22.4. Botanical Origin 22.5. Conclusions, Suggestion and Future Research 23. Characterization of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico 23.1. Introduction 23.2. Traditional Values of Scaptotrigona mexicana 23.3. Importance of Pot-Pollen in Meliponiculture < 23.4. Palynological Analyses of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico 23.5. Chemical Parameters of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico 23.6. Elemental Composition of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico 23.7. Conclusions and Perspectives on Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen in Mexico 24. Chemical Characterization and Bioactivity of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida, Venezuela 24.1. Introduction 24.2. Proximal Analysis of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida 24.3. Methods to Quantify Flavonoids, Polyphenols, Proteins, and Antioxidant Activity in Ethanolic Extracts of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen 24.3.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts 24.3.2 Flavonoid Content 24.3.3 Polyphenol Content 24.3.4 Protein Content 24.3.5 Antioxidant Activity by the ABTS+* Method 24.3.6 Antioxidant Activity (AOA) by Fenton-Type Reaction 24.3.7 Hydroxyl Radical Assay 24.4. Biochemical Components and Antioxidant Activity of Ethanolic Extracts from Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen 4.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts 24.5. Conclusions 25. Chemical, Microbiological and Palynological composition of the 'Sambura' Melipona scutellaris Pot-Pollen 25.1. Introduction 25.2. The 'Sambura' of the True "Urucu" Bee 25.3. Physicochemical Characteristics of 'Sambura' 25.3.1 Moisture 25.3.2 Ash 25.3.3 Lipids 25.3.4 Protein< 25.3.5 Fiber 25.3.6 Carbohydrates 25.3.7 pH 25.3.8 Free Acidity 25.3.9 Water activity (Aw) 25.3.10 Total Energy Value 25.4. Microbiological Characteristics of 'Sambura' 25.5. Pollen Analysis 26. Characterization of Pot-Pollen from Southern Venezuela 26.1. Introduction 26.2. Venezuelan Stingless Bees 26.3. Botanical Origin of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen 26.4. Proximal Analysis of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen 26.5 Bioactive Components and Antioxidant Activity of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts 26.5.1 Preparation of the Ethanolic Extracts 26.5.2 Bioactive components 26.5.3 Flavonoids by HPLC-UV 26.5.4 Antioxidant Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Homogenates 26.6. Conclusions 27. Bioactivity and Botanical Origin of Austroplebeia and Tetragonula Australian Pot-Pollen 27.1. Introduction 27.2. Nutraceutical Properties of Bee Pollen 27.3. Botanical Origin of Australian Pot-Pollen 27.4. Flavonoids, Polyphenols and Antioxidant Activity 27.5. Antibacterial Activity of Australian Pot-Pollen 27.6. Conclusions 28. Antibacterial Activity of Ethanolic Extracts of Pot-Pollen from Eight Meliponine Species from Venezuela 28.1. Introduction 28.1.1 Biological Potential of Pollen Stored in Bee Nests 28.1.2 Aim of the Chapter 28.2. Pot-Pollen Samples and Ethanolic Extraction 28.3. Well Diffusion Agar and Minimal Inhibitory Concentration Methods 28.4. Antibacterial Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts 28.4.1 Inhibition Zone Diameters 28.4.2 Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations 28.4.3 Antibacterial Activity of Pollen and Polyphenols 28.4. Conclusions 29. Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen from Three Species of Australian Stingless Bees (Meliponini) 29.1. Introduction 29.1.1 Historical Accounts of Australian Pot-Pollen 29.1.2 Health Benefits of Bee Pollen 29.1.3 Botanical Sources within Flight Range< 29.1.4 Food Security 29.1.5 Research in Australian Meliponini Bee Products 29.1.6 Aim of the Chapter 29.2. Methods of Chromatographic Analysis of Pot-Pollen 29.2.1 Sampling Pot-Pollen from Bee Hives of Australian Meliponini 29.2.2 Extraction 29.2.3 Volatiles by HS-SPME-GC-MS 29.2.4 Chemical constituents by UPLC-DAD-ESI(-)-MS/MS 29.2.5 Targeted Analyses of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PA) by ESI(+)-MS/MS 29.2.6 Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen VOCs and Phenolics 29.3. Chemometrics of Australian Meliponini Pot-Pollen 29.3.1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 29.3.2 Secondary Metabolites by LC-UV-HRMS/MS 29.3.3 Chemometrics Using Open Source Data 29.4. Future studies of Australian Pot-Pollen 29.4.1 Botanical and ecological studies 29.4.2 Microbiological and Metabolomics of Australian Pot-Pollen 29.4.3 Recent Trends in Australian Meliponiculture 29.5. Conclusions SECTION 6 Marketing and Standards of Pot-Pollen 30. Rural-Urban Meliponiculture and Ecosystems in Neotropical areas. Scaptotrigona, a Resilient Stingless Bee? 30.1. Introduction 30.2. Initiatives to Revitalize Stingless Bee Keeping 30.3. Traditional Knowledge Involving Scaptotrigona 30.4. One stingless bee, Scaptotrigona over Melipona 30.5. Naming Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Labels of Commercial Products 30.6. Future of Social Interventions in Meliponiculture 31. Pot-Pollen "Sambura" Marketing in Brazil, and Suggested Legisation 31.1. Introduction 31.2. Pot-Pollen is Known as 'Sambura' in Brazil 31.3. Meliponine Species Used for the Production of 'Sambura' 31.4. Harvesting and Processing 31.5. Marketing of Meliponine 'Sambura' 31.6. Cultural Aspects of Pot-Pollen Consumption in Brazil 31.7. Strategies to Increase the Production of Sambura' 31.8. Seasonality of Pot-Pollen 31.9. Pot-Pollen Production Initiatives in Brazilian States 31.10. Suggested 'Sambura' Standards for Pot-Pollen Legislation Appendix A Ethnic Names of Stingless Bees Appendix B Microorganisms Associated with Stingless Bees or Used to Test Antimicrobial Activity (AM) ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL Appendix C Taxonomic Index of Bees Appendix D List of Bee Taxa Appendix E Taxonomic Index of Plant Families Appendix F List of Plant Taxa Used by Bees INDEX
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